ib_orchard

**(THOR)** This investigation aims to examine how Norwegian influence over Iceland has affected the religious beliefs and practices of the country, and from this examine Norway-Icelandic relations. I have chosen this question as Iceland is unique in its representation of the main religions, Christianity and Paganism, when compared to other Scandinavian countries. In order to answer this question, I will first consider the origins of religion of Iceland through its Norwegian colonisation, and then move on to investigate the Norwegian impact on the Christinisation of the country, and finally consider whether Norway's ancient religious impact is still tangible today. Within the study, the sources I chose represent important information regarding the colonisation and conversion of Iceland, including the //Kristni Saga**[1]**// and Ari Þorgeilsson's //Íslendingabók**[2]**;// and sources such as Iceland's public collection of official data, //Statistics Iceland**[3]**//. A fuller list of sources used can be obtained by referring to the list of sources in Section F.
 * To what extent has Norwegian Influence over Iceland affected its religious culture?**
 * A. Plan of the Investigation**


 * Word count: 182**

Although Irish monks, called //papar// [4] //,// had been present in Iceland from at least 825AD [5], they "later went away, because they did not wish to stay with the heathens" [6]. This refers to the fact that Iceland was colonized by Pagan Norway in 870AD [7]. Despite Norwegian King Haraldr's attempts to prevent travel to Iceland over fears his own kingdom would become depopulated, this proved difficult, and as such introduced "land-dues" taxes to dissuade such journeys [8]. By930AD, Iceland had created its own oral parliament system, the Alþing [9], based upon the Norwegian Þings [10] ; and Haraldr's son Hákon, brought up as a Christian in England, returned to Norway upon his father's death [11]. Ruler from 933, Hákon attempted to convert Norway from Paganism to Christianity, and yet, as the majority of the country still worshipped the Norse Gods, chieftains destroyed churches and compelled Hákon's participation in Pagan sacrifices. Norway was not successfully Christianised until the rule of Óláfr Trygvisson [12], and from this Norway spread religious influence. Óláfr sent various missionaries to Iceland, attempting to convert the nation to Christianity. However, Óláfr's endeavours, similar to earlier individual missionaries' [13], made little significant progress, as "those who spoke against Christianity and rejected it were… in the majority" [14]. Þangbrandr, Óláfr's own converter, was sent as a missionary and although moderately successful in visiting Iceland [15], returned with news that Iceland would not accept Christianity. Imprisoning Icelanders within Norway and with rallying efforts of two Christian Iceland natives, Óláfr caused political disruption at the 1000AD Alþing [16] in Iceland as both pagans and Christians "with all their supporters" convened separately, and "it came so close to them fighting that no one could forsee which way it would go" [17]. Upon the decision of the elected Lawspeaker, Þorgeirr, to cease Pagan-Christian warfare and dispel Norway-Iceland tensions, Iceland converted to Christianity, with private pagan rituals [18] still permitted until their eventual abolition less than 20 years later [19]. In 1262 Iceland accepted Norway's sovereignty, although the country's Alþing was still in office until [DATE – TK DERRY BOOK], not resuming again until [ DATE ] when Iceland regained its independence [20]. Iceland and Norway retained their close political relations into the 21st Century, in particular Norway's plans to trade whale products with Iceland despite international controversy [21], Norway's protection of Icelandic airspace during peacetime periods [22] , and Norway ready to come to Iceland's aid in the 2008 banking crisis [23]. In Iceland 2013 it can be observed that within the most popular given names that there are many of Christian and Norse origin [24].
 * B. Summary of Evidence**


 * Words: 663 **


 * C. Evaluation of Sources**
 * Source 1: Ari Thorgeilsson's //Islendingabok// [Appendix A] **

Islendingabok is labeled as being the first written account of Iceland's history. Given that later Icelandic Sagas reference Ari's writing [25], its value is in the knowledge that his work was considered common true knowledge. However, Islendingabok is limited through its oral sources of information. Inconsistencies appear when referring other texts, including discrepancies between the reign of Scandinavian kings [26], and disputed dates of the original settlement of Iceland [27]. The value of Islendingabok relating to its purpose is observed in Ari's consistent references to his sources, unseen in subsequent works of the century [28], which has been seen as attempts to convey historical accuracy in a "secular attitude" [29].

Despite this, it must be considered that Ari wrote "for our bishops", and Islendingabok was revised by them [30]. In addition, "the influence of European hagiography on [Islendingabok] is obvious [31] ", argued through evidence that Ari's work draws stylistic features from early Latin hagiographies [32].


 * Source 2: [Appendix B]**

Appendix B displays the most popular given names of Children in Iceland for 2012; and as such it can be used as an accurate portrayal of trends within the Icelandic community. Its value is derived from the particular importance naming has within the culture; parents deliberate over names for many months after birth. The high number of religiously based names therefore suggests a particular affinity to culturally relevant names. However, there are regulated rules to the naming system in which the Icelandic government enforce a list of acceptable names, with approval of new suggestions limited. As the Icelandic government is able to control the allowed names, and given the government's involvement in preserving the cultural history of Iceland, it is likely that the prevalence of religiously based names are due to the limited allowed names that are not religiously influenced. [33]
 * Origins purpose values limitations**


 * // NOTES: Origins + Purpose – //**// Governmental website (See //[|//http://statice.is/Pages/2451//]// bottom paragraphs) Was a governmental institute until 2008 when legislation was changed, becoming a separate body, but controlled (?? "under the aegis of") by Minister of Finance and Economics. The Government controls the naming system – They have a list of approved names!! (Source – //[|**//www.allscandinavia.com/icelandicnames.htm//**]// ) so it is limited by the origin as the Government does control what names are allowed to be popular. This means it is likely that they only allow names that reference clearly to their cultural heritage, given their celebration of such a heritage (for example their //[|//www.heimskringla.no//]// website that is all their historical texts for free online; and websites such as //[|//www.thingvellier.is//]//, making a national park out of original Althing site). //


 * Words: 401**

The general influence Norway held over Iceland from the time of Iceland's settlement is evident both in the adapted law system, with a version of the Western-Norwegian //Lagthing**[34]**//, and in the transfer of the pagan religion along with those who settled there, as suggested by T.K Derry in //History of Scandinavia (1905)//. The singular view that Norway was the only source of the colonisers of Iceland, as shown in Islendingabok[35] and the Kristni Saga[36], can be disputed given the scientific evidence that many of the original inhabitants, particularly women (from "slaves to harlots, noble women, wives and leaders" including a Queen of Dublin[37]) were of British and Irish origin. This therefore suggests that there would have been other religious influences from countries other than Norway, and especially a clear understanding or even belief in Christianity from inhabitants from Britain, which was Christian at the time of the Icelandic settlement. During the conversion of Iceland, Norway's influence was particularly clear to see, given the uniformity in the recount of King Olafr Tryggvisson's great efforts to convert Iceland in much the same way he brought about the conversion of Norway[38]. In both the Kristni Saga[39] and Islendingabok[40] Olafr is portrayed as being particularly incensed at the lack of success of his missionaries; however, when comparing them, although Islendingabok has been noted as having hagiographic influences, this feature is much more noticeable in the Kristni Saga[41]. The book was written between 1200 and 1250 AD, a time when early churches had been built and religious institutes set up[42], and so it is likely that the christianised point of view the author had shaped their writing significantly, leading to descriptions of miracles and spiritual awakening being the main reasons for individual conversions[43]. However, unlike the Kristni saga, Islendingabok is lacking in much information regarding the extent of King Olafr's involvement, and yet still captures a more political standpoint of Norway's influence in terms of the uptaking of Christianity – the conversion is less about belief and more about what would be best for the country both in terms of preventing civil war, and preventing warfare with Norway. Olafr's measures to ensure his successes included imprisoning many Icelanders who were already in Norway in an attempt to pressure Iceland into making a decision, and given that Iceland had no army to protect itself[44], the decision to convert would have been made particularly in the knowledge that Norway had the means to take over the country if necessary. [Above paragraph needs to be shortened].
 * D. Analysis**

The political influence of Norway, expressed through its regard for the importance of religion in 1000AD, was used again in 1262[45] when, after years of tension as individual chieftains gained more power, Iceland was on the brink of civil war, Iceland accepted Norway's rule, falling under their monarchy[46]. Once again this is a display of how Norway influenced the country when it was in a state of turmoil or weakness. In the 21st Century, Norway's influence and relations with Iceland are focused on politics and socio-economics[47], but not religion. It is clear to see from governmental treatment of cultural heritage[48] that religious significance is important to Iceland. Although the name list suggests the importance of religion, as said in Section C, the governmental influence suggests a forced cultural significance. This is also backed up by the understanding of the little significance the religious influence of a name has for Icelanders, given the majority of Icelanders are Christian[49]and yet do not see the irony or importance of naming their child a paganised name[50].


 * Words: 717**


 * E. Conclusion**
 * //As above, needs to be reworded in order to cohere to new question.//**

//Norwegian religious influence greatly affected Icelandic religion, transferring its own religions through colonisation and through political force. Norway's influence in modern times has moved toward being more politically based (almost secular??). Just as the Icelandic language has changed very little since settlement, the mindset of independence of thought and diplomacy, as displayed through the Althing and simple (non-belief related) acceptance of Christianity, has been carried through time (see source saying 85% of Icelanders believe independence to be highly important) to create a society where both main religions introduced by Norway are able to be intermingled easily. Norway's religious influence still exerts power in areas such as naming which are highly important in Icelandic culture (see article saying a baby's name will not be revealed for many months after birth and the whole 'list of approved names' thing the government does).// //So Norway's influence affected religion in the past that to a large extent displays a lot of cultural importance as opposed to political importance as it once did.//
 * // NOTES: //**//Conc. something like Norway's religious influence was particularly strong at the inception of Iceland possibly due to the country's relative lack of strength (no army, see info on Olaf's threats) and the split of belief systems due to Norway actively striving to change Iceland's belief system. Although Norway-Iceland relations are still prevalent, they are based more on matters of international politics than individual belief systems. That is not to say that Norway's religious influence is no longer relevant, it is clear to see that due to Iceland's religious history a country that easily mixes two types of religion, active or not (reference to number of Christians vs. relative null of pagans) within its culture (maybe also reference to that article that says most Icelanders are not certain on the lack of evidence for elves (Norse). It's like the cultural belief in the supernatural beings is still relevant? Who knows. This is a maybe part. Probably not due to word count).//

//(A lot of the above description fits into Section D so that needs to be edited out once written).//

Words: unfinished

T.K. Derry (1979). A History of Scandinavia. University of Minnesota Press. (ISBN: 978-0-8166-3799-7) Sian Gronlie (2006). Islendingabok, Kristni Saga, The Book of the Icelanders, The Story of the Conversion.Viking Society For Northern Research University College London (ISBN-13: 978-0-903521-71-0) Andy Orchard (2011). The Elder Edda: A Book of Viking Lore. Penguin Books (ISBN: 978-0-140-43585-6) Ari Þorgeilsson. Islendingabok. 1130-1140. Publisher Unknown. Author Unknown (1200-1250). Kristni Saga. Publisher Unknown.
 * F. List of Sources –** NOTE: need to update footnote references for correct format.
 * //1. Books//**

Hólmfriður Gísladóttir. Statistics Iceland [ONLINE]. Available at: [] [last accessed: 30th August 2013] [AUTHOR]. Whale hunting to resume in Iceland's waters [ONLINE]. Available at: [|**//www.icenews.is/2013/05/10/whale-hunting-to-resume-in-icelands-waters///**] [Last accessed: 4th September 2013] [AUTHOR]. Twist of Faith [ONLINE]. Available at: [|**//www.icelandreview.com/icelandreview/daily_life/Twist_of_Faith_(ESA)_0_378946.news.aspx//**][Last accessed: 31st August 2013] [AUTHOR]. What's in an Icelandic Name? [ONLINE]. Available at: [|**//www.allscandinavia.com/icelandicnames.htm//**] [Last accessed: 30th August 2013]
 * 2. Websites**
 * //[AUTHOR]. Islendingabok [ONLINE]. Available at: heimskringla.no/wiki/Islendingabok [Last accessed: 4th August 2013]//**
 * //[AUTHOR]. The Nordic Countries Ready to come to Iceland's Aid [ONLINE]. Available at://**[|**//www.icenews.is/2008/10/28/the-nordic-countries-ready-to-come-to-iceland's-aid///**] **//[Last accessed: 4th September 2013]//**
 * //[AUTHOR]. [TITLE] [ONLINE]. Available at://**[|**//www.thingvellier.is/history///**] **//[Last accessed: 26th August 2013]//**


 * //3. Appendices//**
 * Appendix A: [extract from Islendingabok] **


 * Appendix B:**


 * Retrieved: 05/09/2013**



[1] Author Unknown (1200-1250). Kristni Saga. Publisher Unknown. [2] Literally "The Book of the Icelanders" [3] Hólmfriður Gísladóttir. Statistics Iceland [ONLINE]. Available at: [] [last accessed: 30th August 2013] [4] "The term papar (sg. papi) probable derives from the Old Irish papa 'pope, anchorite'".

Sian Gronlie (2006) Islendingabok, Kristni Saga, The Book of the Icelanders, The Story of the Conversion. Viking society for Northern Research, University College London. p.17. [5] Janina Ramirez, The Sagas of Iceland: Creating Terra Nova [ONLINE?]. Available at: (Source given by Mr Tarr) [6] Those practicing in the Pagan religion [7] Ari Þorgeilsson (DATE). Íslendingabók. Publisher unknown. Chapter I [8] Ibid. [9] T.K. Derry (1979). A History of Scandinavia. University of Minnesota Press. Pg. 33 [10] SOURCE!!!! [11] Synnøve Veinan Hellerud, Hákon the Good [MR TARR SOURCE]. Available at: [12] T.K. Derry (1979). A History of Scandinavia. University of Minnesota Press. Pg. 38 [13] Notably Þorvaldr and Fríðrekr [14] Ari Þorgeilsson (DATE). Íslendingabók. Publisher unknown. Chapter VII [15] "Many people then accepted the faith in the Southern Quarter and the Northern Quarter", Author Unknown (1200-1250) Kristni Saga. Publisher Unknown. Chapter Eight. [16] Author Unknown. (1200-1250) Kristni Saga. Publisher Unknown. Chapter Eleven. [17] Ari Þorgeilsson. (DATE) Íslendingabók. Publisher Unknown. Chapter VII. [18] These included infanticide and the consumption of horsemeat, both abhorred in the Christian faith at the time. [19] .Ari Þorgeilsson. (DATE) Íslendingabók. Publisher Unknown. Chapter VII. [20] T.K. Derry (1979). A History of Scandinavia. University of Minnesota Press. [21] [AUTHOR] Whale hunting to resume in Iceland's waters [ONLINE]. Available at: [|www.icenews.is/2013/05/10/whale-hunting-to-resume-in-icelands-waters/] [Last accessed: 4th September 2013] [22] [SOURCE] [23] [AUTHOUR] The Nordic Countries Ready to come to Iceland's Aid [ONLINE]. Available at: [|www.icenews.is/2008/10/28/the-nordic-countries-ready-to-come-to-icelands-aid/] [Last accessed: 4th September 2013] [24] Appendix B [25] Sian Gronlie (2006). Islendingabok, etc. Page xxix [26] "Ari, like the author of Historia Norwegie… assumes that Olafr remains king of the Swedes; but Snorri… tells that he was driven out of central Sweden". Sian gronlie, etc, page 15 note 5. [27] Sian gronlie, page 16 note 14. [28] Sian Gronlie, page xvii [29] Sian Gronlie (2006) Islendingabok, Kristni Saga, The Book of the Icelanders, The Story of the Conversion. p. xxiii [30] Ari Þorgeilsson (DATE) Islendingabok. Publisher Unknown. Chapter I [31] Sverrir Tomasson (1988) Formálar íslenskra sagnaritara á midöldum: rannsokn bokmenntehefdar. (Pp. 462) [32] Sian Gronlie (2006) Islendingabok, Kristni Saga, The Book of the Icelanders, The Story of the Conversion. p. xix [33] Need to add sources [34] Derry, T.K History of Scandinavia page 33 [35] [36] [37] [AUTHOR] The Sagas of Iceland [MR TARR SOURCE] [38] T.K. Derry (1979). A History of Scandinavia. University of Minnesota Press. Pg. 38 [39] [40] [41] Appendix C – extract from Kristni Saga [42] SOURCE - bookmarked [43] General note on wording. In notes: // This and the unknown author leaves large gaps in the interpretation of this means that there is little basis to understand that the conversion was a religiously influenced event as the sage makes a point of showing etc. // Better wording / easier to understand? [44] Derry book – find page [45] Bookmarked reference – add later [46] Derry book [47] Whaling article, banking article, military article (in section F already) [48] Althingvellir site and heimskringla site [49] Statistics Iceland – chart on religion [50] Article (bookmarked). Maybe find quote?